Bibliography of Black Pod Diseases Phytophthora palmivora Phytophthora megakarya Phytophthora capsica

Black pod or Phytophthora pod rot has been the primary fungal disease affecting cacao production worldwide since the 1920's. In 1979 a detailed study of the taxonomy of the species of Phytophthora affecting cocoa proposed three species, P. palmivora, P. megakaryaand a third uncertain species, tentatively identified as P. capsici. This latter species closely resembles the black pepper fungus P. capsici, but it might prove to be a new species.

P. palmivora has a world-wide distribution on cocoa, while P. megakarya is confined to several countries of West Africa and P.capsici to South America, Central America and the West Indies. Another species, P. citrophthora, has been identified from cocoa in Bahia, Brazil. P. citrophthora is more virulent on unwounded, detached pods than P. palmivora or P. capsici, but is relatively rare.

The major economic loss is from infection of the pod. Pods can be infected at any age, but most significant economic loss arises from infection during the two months prior to ripening. Pods infected at this stage can be a total loss because the fungus can easily pass from the pod husk to the seed-coat of the bean in a developing green pod.

There are differences of detail in the symptoms caused by the four Phytophthora species: the initial symptom is the appearance of a small translucent spot on the pod surface and is the same for all species. This spot soon turns to a chocolate brown color, then darkens and expands rapidly with a slightly irregular margin. This margin can advance at an average of 12 mm in 24 hours. P. palmivora does not usually produce a bloom of sporangia. Infection of other tissues can also occur but they do not normally cause severe economic loss.

Black pod is difficult to control. The mycelium has been found in varying amounts in rotting cocoa pods, and viable Phytophthora spores have been found to survive on heaps of pod husks for up to three months. Insects, particularly ants, have been found to be involved in the spread of Phytophthora in several places. Pods can become infected by any one of several sources with epidemics developing from a series of foci that arise continuously through the season and infect other pods sequentially. Thus there is little advantage in early season control. Many trees are too tall to be effectively sprayed or harvested, so that infected pods can continue to disperse inoculum from high in the canopy.

Chemical control of black pod by spraying with copper fungicide is a well established control method. In the drier parts of West Africa spraying is normally unnecessary, and in parts of Bahia, Brazil, reasonable control is achieved with two annual applications of copper. However, copper-based fungicides are not completely effective in wetter areas because the chemicals are often washed off by heavy rains and need to be repeated. Thus, local recommendations will depend on the amount and timing of rainfall, duration of periods of high humidity, age and height of the trees, amount of shade, type of planting material, the application machinery, social conditions and the size of the planting. Cultural techniques such as shade reduction, regular harvesting and frequent weed control may reduce infection, but some losses from black pod are almost inevitable if the area is subject to long periods of high humidity. Very long periods of high humidity can result in every pod on a tree attacked by the disease if no control measures are adopted.

Reducing the relative humidity within the cocoa canopy by improving air circulation can decrease the amount of infection with black pod. Reduction of shade, regular weeding and pruning of cocoa trees coupled with frequent removal of epiphytes and chupons, will all reduce the humidity by improving air circulation.

Piles of pod husks can act as a source of inoculum though only for cocoa trees close to the husk piles. It may be a wise precaution to spray the husk piles with a recommended fungicide during routine rounds of spraying. The evidence for infection from diseased pods left on trees is conflicting. However, all dead plant material, such as mummified pods, should be removed during routine sanitary pruning.

Frequent harvesting of ripe pods should ensure that recently infected pods do not become a total economic loss, and is currently the most economically sound recommendation.

Field observations on cocoa cultivars show consistent differences in levels of infection and, although no selections have shown complete immunity, there is sufficient variability for incorporation into breeding programs. Two types of resistance in pods have been reported; one to the penetration of the pod by the pathogen and the other to the growth of the pathogen after penetration.

Current plantings tend to be of Amazon hybrid material which can produce pods throughout the year. This is likely to increase the level of inoculum in a cocoa farm because small numbers of pods may be present on the trees at all times of the year. A promising approach to control is to breed for disease escape, which infers that the tree produces the bulk of its crop when climatic conditions are least conducive to the spread of the disease.

The soil environment can be modified by using lime to increase soil pH. Through related research on citrus and papaya, it has been found that soil modification has suppressed Phytophthora. Another IPM option utilizes the companion element, boron. Boron is known to increase pod set and reduce cherelle wilt. An annual foliar spay is considered the best method of introducing boron quickly into the cacao tree.

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