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Objective C
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NC-213
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Determine the effects of genetic traits, abiotic environmental conditions, and handling practices on the quality of cereals and oilseeds
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NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Department of Food Science & Technology
By: Jackson, D.S.
NC-213 Objective: C
Title: Quantify and define quality of
cereals and oilseeds for various end use markets.
Results For 2002: Plant breeders
are actively developing grains with novel starch and other characteristics. In
order to screen new germplasm, small-scale processing operations must be
developed that mimic industrial procedures and products. A small-scale
laboratory method for Asian salted noodle processing was developed. Thirty-five
(35) grams of flour were mixed into a dough, rested, sheeted and cut into
noodles. Six (6) hard red winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties planted
in Nebraska (1999) were selected to compare laboratory and pilot-plant
production methods and the resulting salted noodle products. Flour protein
content ranged between 9.3%-10.7% (14%MB), and the Mixograph dough mixing
tolerance scores were between 2.3-3.0 based on a 0-7 scale. Raw noodle color and
discoloration after 24 hours storage was tested. Cooking loss and weight gain
were measured as the noodle cooking properties. Cooked noodle hardness,
springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness were analyzed
with a TA-XT2 Texture Analyzer. All these properties, except springiness, were
highly correlated between laboratory and pilot-plant products. Both methods were
reproducible and had high precision. Data analysis indicated that the laboratory
method was comparable to the pilot-plant method. When the quality of noodles
made using the different wheat varieties was ranked, similar rankings were
obtained for both the pilot-plant and laboratory Asian salted noodle processing
methods.
Plans For 2002:
As was the case for Asian Salted Noodles (above), there is also a significant
need to identify a small-scale processing method that mimics corn alkaline
cooking. The relationship between and the results obtained from 50 g
“beaker-cooking,” 200 g “bag-cooking,” 35 kg pilot-plant corn alkaline cooking
(masa production) will be determined. Corn with different hardness and pericarp
removal characteristics will be cooked using the three methods and ground into
masa using two different (traditional) stone-grinding wheels. Alkaline cooking
properties such as nixtamal moisture, degree of cook and dry matter loss will be
determined. Masa textural properties will be analyzed with a Texture Analyzer
and degree of cook will be determined using a DSC.
Publications:
Shandera, D.L. and D.S. Jackson. 2002. Corn Kernel Structural Integrity:
Analysis Using Solvent and Heat Treatments. Cereal Chem. 79(2):308-316.
Guo, G. 2002. Asian salted noodle and wheat tortilla quality: impact of amylose
content adjustments using waxy wheat flour Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of
Nebraska—Lincoln.
Zhu, T. 2002. Evaluation and development of several amylose determination
methods. Thesis (Masters) University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
Issues: The development of small-scale processing
procedures that mimic larger industrial processing techniques is vital to the
efficient breeding of cereal grains.
What Was Done: This research used an advanced
statistical tool to screen wheat varieties for further study, and proved that a
laboratory processing method could be used to screen varieties for noodle
making.
Impacts: The statistical procedures will prove useful in developing similar
tests for corn and other grains, while the specific wheat noodle test will allow
for targeted breeding of US wheats for improved Asian noodles. More competitive
high quality US wheats will help increase exports to Asian countries.
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NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: USDA, Agricultural Research Service
U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory
Grain Marketing and Production Research Center
Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit
Manhattan, Kansas
By: Bean, S.R.
Chung, O.K.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1a
Project Objectives: Conduct basic and applied
research in the biochemistry and technology of grain sorghum to identify and
evaluate the biochemical components that govern processing, digestibility, and
susceptibility to mold. The information is used to improve sorghum quality and
utilization for increasing domestic and export markets.
Results for 2002:
Noodles were produced from 100% sorghum and 50% wheat/sorghum blends. Sorghum
waffles (containing 100% sorghum) were also produced. Samples are being gathered
to evaluate variability in sorghum waffle quality. Methods for improving the
analysis of sorghum proteins by SDS-PAGE were developed as well as improved
methods for extracting sorghum proteins. Relationships between protein
composition and kernel hardness (measured by the single kernel characterization
system-SKCS) were investigated.
Plans for 2003:
Continue to develop and improve methods for analyzing sorghum proteins and other biomolecules, including phenolic compounds and other anti-oxidants. Evaluate
food grade sorghum hybrids for functionality and other quality characteristics
for food and non-food uses. The role of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase
enzymes on sorghum noodle quality will be investigated. The SKCS will be
tailored for sorghum analysis. More detailed studies on the relationships
between sorghum hardness and protein composition will be conducted as well as
relationships between sorghum kernel properties, protein composition, and
processing properties such as milling.
Publications:
Bean, S.R., and G.L. Lookhart. HPCE of gluten proteins. In: P.R. Shewry and G.L.
Lookhart (eds.), Gluten Protein Analysis, Am. Assoc. Cereal Chemists: St. Paul,
MN. (In press.)
Lookhart, G.L., S.R. Bean, and J.A. Bietz. RP-HPLC of gluten proteins. In: P.R.
Shewry and G.L. Lookhart (eds.), Gluten Protein Analysis, Am. Assoc. Cereal
Chemists: St. Paul, MN. (In press.)
Rosell, C.M., S. Aja, S.R. Bean, and G.L. Lookhart. 2002. Effect of Aelia spp.
and Eurygaster spp. damage on wheat proteins. Cereal Chem. 79:801-805.
Lookhart, G.L., S.R. Bean, R. Lyne, O.K. Chung, S. Chandra, J.B. Ohm, M. Stearn,
and S. Piland. 2002. Relationship of insoluble proteins to mixing requirements
for flours from commercial mills and individual cultivars. Abstract Book of the
87th AACC Annual Meeting. p. 118.
Bean, S.R., and S.H. Park. 2002. Optimized methods for extraction and SDS-PAGE
analysis of sorghum proteins. Abstract Book of the 87th AACC Annual Meeting. p.
132.
Lookhart, G.L., S.R. Bean, R. Lyne, O.K. Chung, S. Chandra, J.B. Ohm, M. Stearn,
and S. Piland. Relationship of relative amounts of insoluble polymeric proteins
to dough consistency for flours from commercial mills and individual cultivars.
Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting: Wheat Quality
Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, March 17-19, 2003, Honolulu,
HI. (In press.)
Park, S.H., O.K. Chung, P.A. Seib, and S.R. Bean. Wheat protein subclasses in
relation to characteristics of experimental pup-loaf breads. Program and
Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting: Wheat Quality Measurement and
Processing into the 21st Century, March 17-19, 2003, Honolulu, HI. (In press.)
Bean, S.R., and G.L. Lookhart. Methods for analyzing polymeric proteins of wheat
and their impact on wheat quality. Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific
Rim Meeting: Wheat Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century,
March 17-19, 2003, Honolulu, HI. (In press.)
Issues: Sorghum is a drought resistant, low
input crop currently used as animal feed in the U. S. However, there is great
potential for human food uses and bio-industrial uses for sorghum (such as
ethanol). To fully utilize sorghum as a renewable resource, basic research into
the functionality of sorghum proteins and other biomolecules is needed.
What Was Done: New methods to
extract and analyze sorghum proteins were developed. These methods will serve
the base for future studies on the functionality of sorghum proteins in food and
non-food products.
Impacts: Relative to other
cereals grains, little research has been carried out with respect to the
relationship between the major classes of sorghum biomolecules and end-use
quality (both for food and animal feed). In order to produce higher quality
sorghum products, and thus increase the utilization of sorghum, more research is
needed in this area. Improved methods for analyzing sorghum proteins have been
developed. In addition, the relationship between sorghum protein composition and
kernel hardness has been investigated. Several food products have been produced
from sorghum and relationships between food quality and sorghum biochemistry and
being carried out. The research will result in: improved grain sorghum quality
for human foods and animal feeds; increased utilization; and enhanced domestic
and export markets.
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NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: USDA-Agricultural Research Service
Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit
U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory
Grain Marketing and Production Research Center
Manhattan, Kansas
By: Bechtel, D.B.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1a
Project Objectives: Develop fast
reliable methods for the identification of quality traits of wheat starches.
Results for 2002:
Transmission electron microscopy was used to follow endosperm starch formation
in organelles called amyloplasts in developing wheat from the day of flowering
through grain maturation. Plastids in the coenocytic endosperm of young wheat
caryopses were mostly in the form of proplastids with a few containing small
starch granules. Following cellularization of the coenocytic cytoplasm, the
outer one or two endosperm cell layers became meristematic and continued to
divide until about 14 days after flowering (DAF). During the first week of
endosperm development, newly divided cells had plastids that were pleomorphic in
shape, while subaleurone cells interior to the meristematic region contained
amyloplasts that contained a single size class of starch granules (incipient
type A starch granules). The pleomorphic plastids exhibited tubular protrusions
that extended a considerable distance through the cytoplasm. Both subaleurone
and central endosperm cells had amyloplasts that exhibited protrusions at 10-12
DAF, and some of the protrusions contained small starch granules (incipient type
B starch granules). Protrusions were not observed in 14 DAF endosperm
amyloplasts, but incipient large type A and smaller type B starch granules were
present. Amyloplast protrusions were numerous again at 17 DAF in both
subaleurone and central endosperm cells and by 21 DAF a third size class of
small type C starch granules was observed in the cytoplasm. Amyloplasts in the
endosperm of wheat apparently divided and increased in number via protrusions,
since binary fission typical of plastid division was never observed. The results
suggest that there are three sizes of starch granules produced at specific times
during wheat endosperm development. The research will provide a means for
identifying and predicting starch size distributions for specific wheat end-use
qualities, such as, rheological properties, baking characteristics, processing
parameters and its adaptation in non-food uses.
Plans for 2003: Apply laser diffraction sizing techniques to measure starch size
distributions and flour particle size distributions. Develop methods for the
isolation of specific sizes of starch granules and determine how those specific
distributions affect wheat quality.
Publications:
Bechtel, D.B., and J.D. Wilson. Amyloplast formation and starch granule
development in hard red winter wheat. Cereal Chem. (In press.)
Bechtel, D.B. and J.D. Wilson. 2002. Amyloplast formation and starch granule
development in hard red winter wheat. In: Program Book of the 87th AACC Annual
Meeting. Page 78.
Wilson, J.D. and D.B. Bechtel. 2002. The study of wheat starch size distribution
using image analysis and laser diffraction technology. In: Program Book of the
87th AACC Annual Meeting. Page 213.
Issues: Most predictors of wheat quality are centered on protein quality. About
70% of the starchy endosperm mass is composed of starch, yet little is known
about the effect of wheat starch on end use quality.
What Was Done: Scientists have shown that the size of wheat starch granules
affect end use qualities of the flour in baking systems. We have shown how wheat
endosperm starch developed during grain maturation and showed how the three
sizes of starch granules form using transmission electron microscopy.
Impacts: We have previously shown that wheat starch is composed of three
specific sizes of starch granules. We have now shown how those size classes are
synthesized within amyloplasts. Altering how amyloplasts divide may affect the
size distribution of starch in wheat endosperm and therefore wheat quality.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: USDA, Agricultural Research Service
Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit
U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory
Grain Marketing and Production Research Center
Manhattan, Kansas
By: Chung, O.K.
Seabourn, B.W.
Caley, M.S.
Park, S.H.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1a
Project Objectives: Evaluate kernel
characteristics, milling properties, and dough and bread making properties of
hard winter wheat progenies. Determine protein and lipid contents, and
composition and interaction among these components of cereal grains as they
relate to storage, handling, and end-use properties.
Results for 2002: We at the Hard
Winter Wheat Quality Laboratory (HWWQL) continue to evaluate intrinsic quality
parameters of several thousand hard winter wheat lines from 14 federal, state,
and private nurseries. Data were sent to breeders electronically, followed by
written reports upon request. For the Southern (SRPN) and Northern (NRPN)
Regional Performance Nursery samples, several intrazone production area
composites were also tested for quality to study the environmental adaptability
of each line. In addition, we have led both Wheat Quality Council Sample
evaluation for domestic customers and Overseas Varietal Analysis Project for
international customers.
Quality data of the SRPN and NRPN are posted on the Graingenes web site; a copy
of the data may be obtained in electronic format via the internet by directing
your browser to the Graingenes gopher at gopher://greengenes.cit.cornell.edu/.
Using a simple, user-friendly relational database system, we provided
simultaneous assessment of multiple quality traits. It was the fifth year for us
to distribute the database to all wheat breeders at the annual Breeders Field
Day. For breeders and other industry customers to be able to easily access
regional performance nursery data via the internet, we provided a web page for
the HWWQL (http://gqu1.usgmrl.ksu.edu/gqu/HWWQL/HWWQLHome.htm). The webpage also
allows for the HWWQL to more rapidly respond to customer needs.
We have continued to study the interaction of wheat flour protein, starch, and
lipids in the presence of water and as they are mixed in order to provide basic
chemical information the rheology of flour/water dough systems using FTIR and
Raman spectroscopy. Brad W. Seabourn has completed his dissertation on
“Determination of Protein Secondary Structure in Wheat Flour-Water Systems
During Mixing Using Fourier Transform Horizontal Attenuated Total Reflectance
Infrared Spectroscopy.”
We were invited to review the status of hard winter wheats-past, present and
future at the Annual National Wheat Industry Research Forum and to review the
activities of the ARS Regional Wheat Quality Laboratories at the NC-213 Annual
Meeting in February 2002 in Kansas City.
Plans for 2003: Continue to evaluate intrinsic quality parameters of hard winter
wheat breeding lines; continue to improve the activities of the HWWQL as a
Regional Wheat Quality Laboratory with efficient service and regional
collaboration; study suitability of hard winter wheats in Asian noodle-making by
testing the polyphenol oxidase (PPO) levels in breeding lines and also
determining noodle-dough color stability; conduct studies on prediction of
end-use quality using testing parameters (physical and chemical
characteristics), including SKCS data, NIRS6500 scans, computerized mixograph
data; and study dynamic rheological changes and multiple interactions during
dough mixing by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy.
Publications:
Bennett, R.E., O.K. Chung, and T.J. Herrman. 2002. Milling and bread-baking
qualities of hard winter wheat varieties: 2002 Kansas update. Kansas State
University, Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service.
MF-1077. 4 pp.
Chung, O.K. 2002. Greetings from the ICC, pp. ix-x. In: P.K.Y. Ng and C.W.
Wrigley (eds), Wheat Quality Elucidation: The Bushuk Legacy. Am. Assoc. Cereal
Chem.: St Paul, MN.
Chung, O.K. 2002. Welcome address as ICC President. Book of Abstracts of the 2nd
International Conference: Grain, Flour, and Bread Quality, May 20-24, 2002,
Moscow, Russia.
Chung, O.K., W. Bushuk, and J.B. Ohm. Rye production and uses worldwide. In: G.
Juodeikiene (ed.), Proceedings of the 1st Baltic Conference on Rye, Kaunas,
Lithuania. (In press.)
Chung, O.K., F.E. Dowell, S.R. Bean, G.L. Lookhart, J.B. Ohm, M. Tilley, L.M.
Seitz, M.S. Ram, D.B. Bechtel, M.E. Casada, S.H. Park, J.D. Hubbard, B.W.
Seabourn, M.S. Caley, J.D. Wilson, R.E. Dempster, J.M. Downing, J.E. Throne,
J.E. Baker, and C.S. Chang. 2002. Wheat research in the U.S. Grain Marketing
Research Laboratory, Grain Marketing and Production Research Center. Annual
Wheat Newsletter 48:224-234.
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm, H. Glattes, and R. Schoenlechner. Rye in the USA. In: G.
Juodeikiene (ed.), Proceedings of the 1st Baltic Conference on Rye, Kaunas,
Lithuania. (In press.)
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm, M.S. Caley, B.W. Seabourn, M. Tilley and P.A. P.A. 2002.
Segregation of hard winter wheats according to baking and milling properties
using wheat quality parameters. Abstract Book of the 87th AACC Annual Meeting.
Page 156.
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm, A.M. Guo, C.W. Deyoe, G.L. Lookhart and J.G. Ponte, Jr.
2002. Free lipids in air-classified high-protein fractions of hard winter wheat
flours and their effects on bread making quality. Cereal Chem. 79:774-778.
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm, G.L. Lookhart and R.F. Bruns. Quality characteristics of
hard winter and hard spring wheats grown under an over-wintering condition. J.
Cereal Sci. (In press.)
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm and S.H. Park. 2002. Wheat lipids: What do they do to
quality? Book of Abstracts of the 2nd International Conference: Grain, Flour,
and Bread Quality, May 20-24, 2002, Moscow, Russia. pp. 59-61.
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm and S.H. Park. 2002. Wheat lipids: A supplementary quality
determinant. Book of Program and Abstracts of the ICC Conference 2002: Novel Raw
Materials, Technologies and Products - New Challenge for the Quality Control,
May 26-29, 2002, Budapest, Hungary. P. 55.
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm and S.H. Park. 2002. Wheat lipids: A supplementary quality
determinant, pp.167-175. In: A. Salgo (ed.), Proceedings of ICC Conference 2002:
Novel Raw Materials, Technologies, and Products - New Challenges for the Quality
Control, May 26-29, 2002, Budapest, Hungary. Budapest University of Technology
and Economics Publisher: Budapest.
Chung, O.K., and M. Tilley. 2002. Cereal research in the U.S.A. pp. 55-57. In:
H. Glattes and J.W. vander Kamp (eds.), Conference Report of the EU/ICC Cereal
Conference 2002 (ECC 2002): Implementation of the European Research Area, March
6-8, 2002, Vienna, Austria.
Chung, O.K., M. Tilley and J.E. Dexter. 2002. Cereal research in North America.
Book of Abstracts of the EU/ICC Cereal Conference 2002 (ECC 2002):
Implementation of the European Research Area, March 6-8, 2002, Vienna, Austria.
pp.6-7.
Chung, O.K., M. Tilley, J.B. Ohm, M.S. Caley and B.W. Seabourn. 2002. Hard
winter wheats - past, present, and future, pp. 20-23. In: R.L. Madl (ed.),
Proceedings of the 5th Annual National Wheat Industry Research Forum, January
17, 2002, Orlando, FL.
Chung, O.K., M. Tilley, S.H. Park, M.S. Caley and B.W. Seabourn. Directions in
United States wheat quality. Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim
Meeting: Wheat Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, March
17-19, 2003, Honolulu, HI. (In press.)
Graybosch, R.A., E. Souza, W. Berzonsky, P.S. Baenziger and O.K. Chung. 2002.
Functional properties of waxy wheat flours: Genotypic and environmental effects.
Abstract Book of the 87th AACC Annual Meeting. p. 142.
Graybosch, R.A, E. Souza, W. Berzonsky, P.S. Baenziger and O.K. Chung.
Functional properties of waxy wheat flours: Genotypic and environmental effects.
J. Cereal Sci. (In press.)
Lookhart, G.L., S.R. Bean, R. Lyne, O.K. Chung, S. Chandra, J.B. Ohm, M. Stearn
and S. Piland. 2002. Relationship of insoluble proteins to mixing requirements
for flours from commercial mills and individual cultivars. Abstract Book of the
87th AACC Annual Meeting. p. 118.
Lookhart, G.L., S.R. Bean, R. Lyne, O.K. Chung, S. Chandra, J.B. Ohm, M. Stearn
and S. Piland. Relationship of relative amounts of insoluble polymeric proteins
to dough consistency for flours from commercial mills and individual cultivars.
Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting: Wheat Quality
Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, March 17-19, 2003, Honolulu,
HI. (In press.)
Ohm, J.B., and O.K. Chung. 2002. Relationships of free lipids with quality
factors in hard winter wheat flours. Cereal Chem. 79:274-278.
Park, S.H., O.K. Chung and P.A. Seib. 2002. Effects of varying the weight ratio
of large and small wheat starch granules on experimental pup-loaf bread.
Abstract Book of the 87th AACC Annual Meeting. p. 140.
Park, S.H., O.K. Chung, P.A. Seib and S.R. Bean. Wheat protein subclasses in
relation to characteristics of experimental pup-loaf breads. Program and
Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting: Wheat Quality Measurement and
Processing into the 21st Century, March 17-19, 2003, Honolulu, HI. (In press.)
Seabourn, B.W. 2002. Determination of protein secondary structure in wheat
flour-water systems during mixing using Fourier transform horizontal attenuated
total reflectance infrared spectroscopy. Ph.D. Dissertation, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, KS. 151 pp.
Seabourn, B.W. and O.K. Chung. Application of NIR for rapid wheat quality
analysis. Program and Abstract Book 2003, AACC Pacific Rim Meeting: Wheat
Quality Measurement and Processing into the 21st Century, March 17-19, 2003,
Honolulu, HI. (In press.)
Issues: The U.S. has lost a significant amount (40% from 1987 to 1997) of the
world wheat export market, especially for the far-eastern Asian market. It is
extremely important to improve U.S. wheat quality desired by our customers at
both domestic and international markets.
What Was Done: Intrinsic end-use (milling and
bread-baking) quality of hard winter wheat breeding lines were evaluated at the ARS Regional HWWQL so that breeders can select their lines based on intrinsic
quality in addition to agronomical quality.
Impacts: Securing and improving the quality of grains
produced in the U.S. so that they meet the needs of both domestic and overseas
customers has always been a monumental task. Grain quality improvement begins
with a breeding program and ends with growers. We at the HWWQL evaluated
intrinsic quality parameters of hard winter breeding lines (2001 crop) and our
data of breeders’ nursery samples are of prime importance for the release of
breeding lines to become cultivars to be grown by farmers. On average of the
last three years, the U.S. wheat production was 66.5 million metric tons (about
2.24 billion bushels): nearly one-half of U.S. wheat production and 41% of U.S.
wheat export comes from hard red winter wheat. Over 95% of all hard winter
wheats have been evaluated for end-use quality before they were released as
cultivars.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: Iowa State University
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
By: Hurburgh, Jr., C.R.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1a
Project Objectives: Optimize performance of near
infrared analyzers.
Results for 2002: A
software solution was designed to:
- Implement a universal Internet-enabled communication and analysis model for
NIR instruments.
- Create a model for handling of data through Internet-capable storage to
provide immediate analytical results for unknown samples and store spectra in a
central database.
- Develop a scalable object-based system of implementation for data processing
and analysis for NIR instruments.
- Implement and compare multiple mathematical algorithms in real time.
The software links multivariate instruments (NIR) with high capacity numerical
software (MATLAB) for central multivariate processing over the Internet. The
combination greatly enhances measurement capabilities and automates data
inventory management.
Three Infratec analyzers were connected to the server during the 2001 corn and
soybean crop season. PLS, neural network (NN), and locally weighted regression
(LWR) calibrations were run simultaneously. Both the NN and the LWR models were
more repeatable and accurate relative to chemistry than the instrument standard
PLS calibrations.
Previous work was presented and published.
Plans for 2003: Add
other NIRS brands to the software. Publish comparison of calibration models.
Test other calibration strategies made possible by access to large memory and
databases in real time. Develop rules for database standardization.
Publications:
Roussel, S.A., C.R. Hurburgh, Jr., and G.R. Rippke. 2002. Detection of
genetically modified soybeans by near-infrared spectroscopy. Pittcon 2002, New
Orleans, LA. March 17-20, 2002 (Abstract).
Roussel, S.A., C.R. Hurburgh, Jr., T. Schroeder, G.R. Rippke, and B. Carr. 2002.
On-the-go grain measurements for research harvesters. Pittcon 2002, New Orleans,
LA. March 17-20, 2002 (Abstract).
Roussel, S.A., C.R. Hurburgh, Jr., and D.B Funk. 2002. Noise robustness
comparison of multivariate calibration models based on near-infrared
spectroscopy measurements. Pittcon 2002, New Orleans, LA. March 17-20, 2002
(Abstract).
Cogdill, R.P, C.R. Hurburgh, Jr., T.C. Jensen, and R.W. Jones. 2002. Single
Kernel Maize Analysis by Near-Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging. Pittcon 2002, New
Orleans, LA. March 17-20, 2002 (Poster).
Dzupin, R., S.A. Roussel, and C.R. Hurburgh, Jr. 2002. Client-server based
internet communications and analyzing model for NIR instruments. Pittcon 2002,
New Orleans, LA. March 17-20, 2002 (Poster).
Cogdill, R.P. and C.R. Hurburgh, Jr. 2002. Photometric standardization of a
near-infrared hyperspectral imaging spectrometer. 3rd International Meeting of
the Dutch Royal Chemometrics Society (ICRM 2002), Veldhoven, The Netherlands.
May 26-30, 2002 (Poster).
Cogdill, R. P. and C. R. Hurburgh, Jr. 2002. Photometric standardization of a
near-infrared hyperspectral imaging spectrometer. J. Chemometrics.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: Iowa State University
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
By: Hurburgh, Jr., C.R.
Rippke, G.R.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1a
Project Objectives: Develop near infrared
calibrations to measure soybean subunits.
Results for 2002: Soybean
fatty-acid calibrations were developed for four brands of NIRS using 1971
samples from the 1993-2001 crop years. The calibrations had Relative Performance
Determinants (RPD, standard deviation of the data divided by prediction standard
error) in the range of 3–6 for 18:0, 16:0, 18:1, 18:2, and 18:3 fatty acids.
Greater accuracy was obtained using fatty acid contents expressed as
weight-weight percentages of the whole soybeans rather than fatty acid contents
expressed as percentages of total oil content. Only one reference laboratory, at
Iowa State University, was used in this work.
A database of amino-acid levels has been collected from 605 widely samples of
1993-2001 crop soybeans. A profile of 23 amino acids, plus oil and protein, were
measured by reference chemical methods on each sample. Variability about the
mean was approximately 10% relative for all constituents. Of the essential amino
acids, lysine and threonine were highly correlated (r > 0.8) with protein.
Cysteine, methionine, and tryptophan levels were not correlated with protein
(p=0.05). This means that low protein soybeans can be effective for poultry
nutrition even if the standard 48% crude protein dehulled meal cannot be
produced from them. A scoring process was developed to evaluate progress of
genetic modification (for amino acids) relative to natural trends. Near-infrared
calibrations (Infratec 1229/1241) for amino acids were developed from this
database. For seven amino acids and cysteine + methionine, the NIR units were
able to improve (p = 0.05) upon calculations made by correlation to proximate
analysis. The calibrations had RPD in the range of 2–4 for the essential amino
acids.
Plans for 2003: Add new data,
expand to more NIRS models. Publish and provide to manufacturers for
distribution or modification. Develop more fully the economic impact of the
higher S containing amino acids in low protein soybeans.
Publications:
Hurburgh, C.R., Jr. 2002. Amino acid content of soybeans: Rapid measurement and
long-term trends. 2002 Annual Meeting, American Oil Chemists Society, Montreal,
PQ, Canada. June 4-7, 2002 (Abstract).
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: USDA, Agricultural Research Service Grain Quality
and Structure Research Unit
Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit
U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory
Grain Marketing and Production Research Center
Manhattan, Kansas
By: Lookhart, G.L.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1a
Project Objectives: Develop methods to
characterize cereal proteins and/or protein fractions. Develop methods to
identify components related to end-use properties.
Results for 2002: A
collaborative project between this researcher and researchers in the Engineering
unit developed a standard procedure for a simple, rapid test to determine wheat
color class. This test provided a simple NaOH test with step-by-step procedures
that can easily be followed by non-technical people to quickly determine wheat
color class. This procedure is now being used around the country.
The evaluation and comparison of quality parameters from some of the more
commonly grown hard winter and hard spring wheats grown under the same
conditions studied to determine whether genetics or environment plays the major
role in winter and spring wheat classes. This project showed that the selected
Spring wheats had slightly higher genetic potential for high protein contents
than the selected Winter wheats as they were all grown in a common environment.
We have continued to develop and utilize electrophoretic and chromatographic
methods to identify cereal grains. Three book chapters (or reviews) have been
published and one book on gluten proteins was co-edited.
The chromatographic and electrophoretic methods developed over the past few
years have been applied to detect the damage of wheat bugs (Aelia spp. and
Eurygaster spp.)in wheat proteins. The enzymes present in the wheat bugs were
found to be potent proteases as they can break down all gluten proteins.
The chromatographic and electrophoretic methods developed in this laboratory
were also used to study the effect of enzymes on wheat proteins that were added
to wheat during tempering to improve bread making quality. The enzymes could be
added to the water during tempering thus modifying and improving milling and
baking qualities.
Air classification of wheat flours is generally done to segregate higher protein
fractions for specialty products. This project was designed to determine the
effect of air classification on the levels of free-lipids as well as to
determine which proteins are affected. Those studies were made to determine
their effects on bread making quality.
Plans for 2003: Faster and more sensitive analytical methods we have developed
will be utilized to characterize proteins in wheat and related species. Relate
results to their properties. Characterize the formation of various wheat
proteins and protein size distributions during grain maturation as a function of
glutenin subunits 5 + 10 vs 2 + 12. Study the rheological attributes of flours
used for tortilla production and characterize the protein fractions to help
predict tortilla making quality.
Publications:
Bean, S.R. and G.L. Lookhart. High-performance capillary electrophoresis of
meat, dairy, and cereal proteins. Electrophoresis 22:4207-4215. 2001. (REVIEW)
Ram, M.S., F.E. Dowell, L.M. Seitz and G.L. Lookhart. Development of standard
procedures for a simple, rapid test to determine wheat color class. Cereal Chem.
79(2):230-237. 2002.
Rosell, C.M., S. Aja, S.R. Bean and G.L. Lookhart. Effect of Aelia spp. and
Eurygaster spp. Damage on Wheat Proteins. Cereal Chem 79:801-805. 2002.
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm, A.M. Guo, C.W. Deyoe, G.L. Lookhart, G.L. and J.G. Ponte,
Jr. Free Lipids in Air-Classified High-Protein Fractions of Hard Winter Wheat
Flours and Their Effects on Breadmaking Quality, Cereal Chem. 79:774-778. 2002.
Rosell, C.M., J. Wang, S.R. Bean and G.L. Lookhart. Enzyme Treatment During
Tempering to Improve Breadmaking Quality of Wheat Proteins. Cereal Chem. 2002.
Chung, O.K., J.B. Ohm, G.L. Lookhart and R.F. Bruns. "Quality Characteristics of
Hard Winter and Spring Wheats Grown Under an Over-Wintering Condition", J.
Cereal Sci. (In press.)
Shewry, P.R. and G.L. Lookhart (eds.) Wheat Gluten Protein Analysis. Eagan Press
AACC, St Paul, MN. (In press.)
Lookhart, G.L., S.R. Bean and J.A. Bietz. HPLC of Gluten Monomeric Proteins. In
Wheat Gluten Protein Analysis.
Naeem, H.A., F. MacRitchie and G.L. Lookhart. 2002. The Effect of High
Temperature Stress on Accumulation of Storage Proteins: Quantitation of
Polymeric Proteins During Grain Development in Near-Isogenic Wheat Lines
Expressing HMW-GS (2 + 12) or GLU-1D1 (5 + 10). ACC Annual Meeting, October
13-17, 2002, Montreal, CANADA.
Lookhart, G.L., S.R. Bean, R.K. Lyne, O.K. Chung, S.O. Chandra, M. Stearns and
S. Piland. 2002. Relationship of Insoluble Polymeric Proteins to Mixing
Requirements for Flours from Commercial Mills and Individual Cultivars, AACC
Annual Meeting, October 13-17, 2002, Montreal, CANADA.
Lookhart, G.L., S.R. Bean, R.K. Lyne, O.K. Chung, Okkyung, S.O. Chandra, M.
Stearns and S. Piland. 2002. Relationship of Relative Amounts of Insoluble
Polymeric Proteins to Dough Consistency for Flours from Commercial Mills and
Individual Cultivars. AACC Pacific Rim Meeting, March 17-19, 2003, Honolulu,
Hawaii.
Issues: There is a need to quickly and
accurately determine the color class of wheat is important to millers and to the
international markets, since white wheats can be milled to higher extractions
and therefore are more profitable. There is also a need to identify end-use
qualities early in the development of a cultivar, as that will allow faster
development of high quality lines and better product quality.
There is a need to identify the effect of insect pests on wheat proteins and
therefore on the quality of products. Some insects readily hydrolyze all
proteins and dramatically reduce product quality.
What Was Done: Methods were developed to aid in
identifying red and white wheats as well as to characterize protein component
changes at various stages of plant growth, effects of insect infestations, and
processing conditions.
Impacts: Identification of cereal cultivars is very important. The end-use
quality of wheat, for example, is determined by nearly equal proportions of its
genetic and environmental factors. Therefore, the only way to quickly predict
end-use properties (quality) is to quickly identify the cultivar. We have
developed high performance liquid chromatography and high performance capillary
electrophoresis methods to quickly (less than 5 min) and accurately identify
cereal grain cultivars from 2 grains to bulk flours. We have also developed
methods to identify barley, maize and sorghum cultivars. The utilization of
these methods allows breeders to quickly and accurately identify their breeding
stocks (know when a certain protein with known positive characteristics is
present) and allow maltsters to identify barley cultivars of known malting
quality.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: Michigan State University
Department of Food Science & Human Nutrition
By: Ng, Perry K.W.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1a
Project Objectives: Examine milling
properties, dough characteristics, protein functionality, and baking properties
of soft white wheat.
Results for 2002: We have continued to examine soft
wheat varieties for milling and baking qualities. Biochemical studies on flour
proteins were conducted. There was a wide range of protein quality among the
examined flour samples. The use of transglutaminase (TG) to improve dough
strength of weak gluten protein flour samples was investigated. The
incorporation of TG allowed soft wheat flour to make satisfactory pan bread. The
biochemistry of the cross-links formed among flour proteins via TG is being
examined.
Plans for 2002: Our plans are to continue
evaluating intrinsic quality parameters for soft wheat varieties for milling and
baking characteristics, continue identifying possible biochemical markers for
these characteristics, and publish available data.
Publications:
Lee, L., P.K.W. Ng and J.F Steffe. 2002. Biochemical studies of proteins in
non-developed, partially developed, and developed doughs. Cereal Chem.
79:654-661.
Lee, L., P.K.W. Ng and J.F. Steffe. 2002. A modified procedure (one-stage
fermentation) for evaluating flour cracker-making potential. Food Engineering
Progress 6:201-207.
Basman, A., H. Koksel and P.K.W. Ng. 2002. Effects of transglutaminase enzyme on
SDS-PAGE patterns of wheat, soy and barley proteins and their blends. J. of Food
Sci 67:2654-2658.
Basman, A., H. Koksel and P.K.W. Ng. 2002. Effects of increasing levels of
transglutaminase on the rheological properties and bread quality characteristics
of two wheat flours. European Food Research and Technology 215:419-424.
Ng, P.K.W. and J.F. Steffe. 2002. Exploring the relationships between flour
protein chemistry and dough rheological properties. Pages 183-195. In Wheat
Quality Elucidation: The Bushuk Legacy. Edited by P.K.W. Ng and C.W. Wrigley.
AACC, St. Paul, MN.
Basman, A., H. Koksel and P.K.W. Ng. 2002. Effects of increasing levels of
transglutaminase on the rheological properties and bread quality characteristics
of wheat flours. Pages 23-27. In Proceedings of the International Association
for Cereal Sciences and Technology (ICC) Conference 2002, Budapest, Hungary.
Ng, P.K.W. 2002. Soft wheat quality testing. Pages 143-149. In Proceedings of
the International Association for Cereal Sciences and Technology (ICC)
Conference 2002, Budapest, Hungary.
Otani, M. and P.K.W. Ng. 2002. Effects of transglutaminase on the texture and
baking of frozen bread dough. AACC Annual Meeting Program Book.
Mujoo, R. and P.K.W. Ng. 2002. Potential usage of immature wheat grain by
modifying flour proteins with transglutaminase. AACC Annual Meeting Program
Book.
Gajraj, A., R. Mujoo and P.K.W. Ng. 2002. Wheat protein aggregation at cold
temperatures and its relationship to flour quality. AACC Annual Meeting Program
Book.
Ng, P.K.W., R. Ward and E. Tanhehco. MSU Wheat Quality Testing Program: Report
on Milling and Baking Test Results for Selected Michigan-Grown Soft Wheats
Harvested in 2001. January 2002. 38 pp.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: USDA, Agricultural Research Service
Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit
U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory
Grain Marketing and Production Research Center
Manhattan, Kansas
By: Tilley, M.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1a
Project Objectives: Investigate the role of
the albumin proteins and other water-soluble components of wheat flour on
quality and functionality.
Results for 2002:
Fractionation of flour albumins using preparative isoelectric focusing and ion
exchange chromatography has led to the discovery of a novel peroxidase enzyme.
The protein was purified and N-terminal amino acid sequencing performed. Using
the sequence data an oligonucleotide probe was synthesized and used to screen a
wheat kernel cDNA library. The resulting cDNA clones were sequenced and found to
be similar to the barely endosperm peroxidase (BP 1).
In collaboration with Dr. S.R. Bean (USDA-ARS GMPRC) a method to reproducibly
separate the albumins and globulins of wheat flour, and whole-wheat extracts by
capillary electrophoresis (CE) was developed. Optimization included sample
extraction method, capillary temperature, buffer composition and additives.
Comparisons were made of several wheats of different classes as well as several
cereal grains (wheat, sorghum, maize, rye, barley, oats and rice).
Plans for 2003: Determine the mechanism of action that albumin and globulin
proteins exert in dough systems. Identify proteins responsible for key peaks in
CE patterns. Improve analytical methods and extend analysis to pentosans.
Publications:
Tilley, M. and K.A. Tilley. 2002. Identification of active components from the
water-soluble extract of wheat flour that catalyze dityrosine formation.
Abstract Book of the 87th AACC Annual Meeting, pg. 127.
Issues: The albumin and globulin fractions
contain approximately 15% of the wheat flour protein. The proteins present in
these groups are nutritionally significant due to higher content of the
essential amino acids lysine and methionine as compared to the gluten proteins.
The albumins and globulins are functionally diverse as many are enzymes or
enzyme inhibitors and thus have several functions that relate to plant
germination and are involved in quality parameters. Wheat albumin and globulin
proteins are mainly enzyme and enzyme inhibitors that play important roles in
food functionality and end-use quality such as product coloration and starch and
protein degradation.
What Was Done: Biochemical methods were developed
for analysis of wheat flour albumins and globulins.
Impacts:
Most research concerning grain proteins has concentrated upon the gluten storage
proteins. The albumins and globulins are the water and salt soluble proteins
that contain biologically active enzymes and enzyme inhibitors. Separation and
analysis of the albumin fraction of whole-wheat extracts using CE is of use in
early generation testing when the limited material is not adequate for milling.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: USDA, ARS Beltsville Agricultural Research
Center
Instrumentation and Sensing Laboratory
Beltsville, Maryland
By: Delwiche, S.R.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1b
Project Objectives: Develop rapid and objective
procedures and instrumentation for assessment of wheat quality and safety.
Results for 2002: A
near-infrared (NIR) spectrometer was used to examine the reflectance trace of
intact wheat kernels, with and without scab damage. Additionally, a third
category was examined, this being mold damage. A total of 577 kernels were
examined by NIR reflectance, having first been categorized (sound, mold, or
scab) by inspectors of the USDA Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards
Administration (GIPSA). Classification trials, based on linear discriminant
analysis, were developed by exhaustive searches of combinations of two to four
NIR readings (using a total of 118 initial readings) that would produce the most
accurate classification. The results indicated that effective classification
(correctness in classification at 95% or higher) could be obtained by use of
just two NIR readings. Still better results were obtained by including kernel
weight into the classification models or by combining the mold and scab
categories into one, thus producing a model that identifies kernels as either
sound or damaged.
Our previous research efforts have demonstrated the feasibility of using near
infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to classify, as well as quantify the waxy condition
in wheat. A study during 2002 reexamined the mathematical basis of NIR
regression models that predict wheat amylose content. An additional mathematical
technique was applied and compared to the conventional structure of an NIR-based
multivariate regression model. The newly applied technique, called locally
weighted regression, attempts to tailor-make a regression equation to each
'unknown' sample by using samples of known constitution that are spectrally
similar to the unknown.
A computer program was written in the SAS language for the purpose of examining
the effect of spectral pretreatments on partial least squares regression of
near-infrared (or similarly structured) data. The program operates in an
unattended batch mode, in which the user may specify a number of commonly used
spectral pretreatments, alone or in combination. These pretreatments include the
two common ones for particle size variation, namely multiplicative scatter (or
signal) correction, and standard normal variate transformation. Additionally, it
includes a running mean smooth, Savitzky-Golay smooth or derivative, and a
wavelength region truncation option. Size of the convolution window and the
polynomial for use in application of the Savitzky-Golay transformation are
selectable. The program relies on the SAS macro programming language,
specifically through the use of nested loops and global variables across the
common constructs of the SAS language - data steps and procedures.
A study was initiated to evaluate the abovementioned computer procedure that
allows an analyst to evaluate the potential of hundreds of mathematical
transformations that are singly applied to the NIR spectra before a statistical
regression procedure known as partial least squares (PLS) regression is
performed. Using a set of nearly 400 samples of hard red winter and hard white
wheat grown over two crop seasons, the procedure evaluated PLS regression models
for protein content, sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation volume (an common
protein quality index), and accumulated times that the developing plants were
above or below critical temperatures (indicators of heat or cold stress). Our
findings indicate that spectral pretreatments have widely varying affects on
model accuracy, especially for protein quality indicators, as opposed to the
protein content.
Plans for 2003: Work will continue on the
use of NIR reflectance and visible/NIR imaging for detection of mold damaged
wheat kernels. Classification models will be refined for NIR–based models that
can be used in wheat breeding programs for assessing the degree of waxyness in
early generations for the purpose of selection. Optical methodologies will be
developed to quantify and classify the properties of soybeans that are related
to quality and value for food and industrial uses. The properties under
investigation will include phytate, fatty acids (oleic, linolenic, palmitic),
amino acids (methionine, cysteine), and saturated fats.
Publications:
Delwiche, S.R., R.A. Graybosch. 2002. Identification of waxy wheat by
near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. J. Cereal Sci. 35:29-38.
Chang, S.Y., S.R. Delwiche and N.S. Wang. 2002. Hydrolysis of wheat starch and
its effect on the falling number procedure: Mathematical model. Biotechnol.
Bioeng. 79:768-775.
Delwiche, S.R., R.A. Graybosch, L.A. Nelson and W.R. Hruschka. 2002.
Environmental effects on developing wheat as sensed by near-infrared reflectance
of mature grains. Cereal Chem. 79:885-891.
Wesley, I.J., B.G. Osborne, R.S. Anderssen, S.R. Delwiche and R.A. Graybosch.
2003. A chemometric localization approach to the NIR measurement of apparent
amylose content of ground wheat. Cereal Chem. (In press.)
Delwiche, S.R. and F.E. Dowell. 2002. NIR-Analyse von einzelnen weizenkornern.
Getreide Mehl und Brot 56:141-146.
Delwiche, S.R. 2003. Classification of scab- and other mold-damaged wheat
kernels by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Trans. ASAE.
Issues: By law, all grain that
is destined for export must undergo official inspection. Inspection is also
performed on domestically traded grain upon request. Grain inspection
traditionally is reliant on human analysis, usually by appearance and odor. As
such, the procedure is time consuming. The Federal Grain Inspection Service
(FGIS) of the USDA Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration
(GIPSA), in its Fiscal Year 2003 prioritized list of research needs for ARS has
stated the desire for the development of objective testing methodology for
determining the components of wheat functionality. They specifically recommend
that NIR and single kernel technologies be examined to determine the attributes
of wheat that contribute to functionality. U.S. Food and Drug Administration
advisory levels specify that DON in finished wheat products destined for human
consumption should not exceed 1 part per million. Traditionally, official
inspection for scab entails human visual analysis of sample of hundreds of
kernels, thus requiring 10 minutes or longer per sample. In recent years, work
has been underway in wheat breeding programs to introduce, by conventional
breeding practices, new lines of wheat that are waxy. The term, "waxy," is used
to describe starchy substances that are extremely low in concentration of a
macromolecule that is normally abundant in starch. Waxy varieties, which are
high in amylopectin, but very low in amylose, have unique processing
characteristics when combined with other ingredients in the formation of breads,
crackers, and noodles. Further, waxy varieties have the potential for use in
niche products in industrial uses of wheat starch. One of the challenges for
waxy wheat breeding programs is to find a reliable analytical method that can
rapidly screen thousands of samples for the waxy trait.
What Was Done: We designed a semi-automated system for single kernel analysis
for wheat scab, based on visible/NIR reflectance. Various statistical models
were used to develop for predicting wheat amylose content from NIR reflectance.
A flexible batch partial least squares program was developed for general use in
the analysis of spectral data. This program was later used to observe the
influence of spectral pretreatments on NIR models for wheat protein content and
protein quality regression models.
Impacts: The achieved accuracy levels for NIR-based scab detection demonstrate
the feasibility of using this technology to assist in wheat grading and
commercial sorting. Scientists who use NIR spectroscopy have been given new
tools and perspectives for the analysis of quantitative data.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213 Progress Report for 2002
From: University of Illinois
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station
Agricultural Engineering Department
By: Paulsen, M.R.
Singh (Bajaj), M.
NC-213 Objective: C
Procedure: 1b
Project Objectives: To develop methods to
automatically detect and measure physical defects and morphological factors of
corn and soybean kernels that relate to quality and end-use.
Results For 2002: In 2002,
research continued on using near-infrared spectroscopy to measure extractable
starch in corn. During the 1997 to 2001 crop years, over 2200 samples of corn
were scanned on the Foss Infratec 1229 near-infrared transmittance (NIT) unit.
Extractable starch was predicted using the Infratec 1229 NIT spectrophotometer
with a standard error of prediction (SEP) of 1.34, R2 of 0.80 and a RPD of 2.2.
The extractable starch calibration has been made available for use at several
FGIS field locations in 2002 and is in use at several commercial facilities.
Global positioning systems enable precise pinpointing of field locations for
fertilizer and herbicide applications as well as moisture and yield monitoring.
To determine variability in corn protein, oil, starch, and extractable starch,
near-infrared transmission (NIT) was used on samples from 640 sub plots that
were planted with two varieties at four population levels, five nitrogen levels,
and two nitrogen application methods. A GLM analyses of variance indicated NIT
protein content increased significantly with increases in nitrogen rate and
application method. Protein ranged from 5.7 to 11.0% d.b. over all plots and
treatments. The highest protein content occurred on plots receiving 202 kg N/ha;
while the lowest occurred on plots receiving no nitrogen. Oil percentages did
not vary significantly with nitrogen rate and they ranged from 2.2 to 4.3%.
Starch content and extractable starch decreased significantly as nitrogen rate
increased. Extractable starch ranged from 63.4 to 72.1%. The highest extractable
starch level of 72.1% occurred on the plots with no nitrogen application; while
the lowest extractable starch occurred on plots receiving 202 kg N/ha. Starch
content ranged from 72.0 to 76.1%. Yield increased from a mean of 10.5 tonnes/ha
at the 0 nitrogen level to 11.5 tonnes/ha at the 202 kg N/ha level. Extractable
starch had a negative correlation (R2 = -0.76) with protein and a positive
correlation (R2 = 0.65) with starch content.
Plans For 2003: Plans for 2003
are to add more diverse genotypes, more drying treatments, and to originate
quantities of check samples for the extractable starch calibration. Work is
planned for measuring soybean fatty acid composition using FT-NIR spectroscopy.
Publications:
Bajaj, M. and M.R. Paulsen. 2002. Measuring Extractable Starch in corn with NIT.
Corn Utilization and Technology Conference Proceedings. June 3 – 5, 2002. Kansas
City, MO. Corn Refiners Assoc. Inc. Washington D.C.
Bajaj, M. and M.R. Paulsen. 2002. Corn compositional characteristics as affected
by region in Illinois. Abstract No. 15. American Assoc. Cereal Chemist’s 87th
Annual Meeting. AACC Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
Paulsen, M.R., S.R. Eckhoff, L. Obaldo, E. Jones, D. Eustace, B. Ye, and J. Liu.
2002. Measurement and removal of garlic in wheat. Applied Engineering in
Agriculture. 18(3): 313-324.
Paulsen, M.R. and M. Singh. 2002. Development of NIT calibration for extractable
starch in maize. Paper No. 02-PH-059. Ag Eng Budapest 2002, International
Conference on Agricultural Engineering.
Singh, M., M.R. Paulsen, L. Tian, and H. Yao. 2002. Site-specific study of corn
protein, oil, and extractable starch variability using NIT spectroscopy. ASAE
Paper No. 02-1111. ASAE. St. Joseph, MI 49085.
Yao, H., L. Tian, M.R. Paulsen, A. Kaleita, and M. Singh. 2002. Hyperspectral
imagery for various crop growth information extraction. ASAE Paper No. 02-1076.
ASAE. St. Joseph, MI 49085.
Issues: Ability to quickly measure
extractable starch in corn and understanding environmental factors affecting
extractable starch levels.
What Was Done: Starch yield is influenced by corn
variety, environmental conditions, and drying methods that involve application
of heat in the presence of moisture. Past research has shown starch yields vary
between 58 to 72% depending on hybrids, with an additional 5 to 6% point
variation due to drying methods; soil nitrogen levels can also significantly
affect extractable starch.
Impacts: For corn used for wet milling and dry
grind ethanol production, extractable starch is a highly important indicator of
value. With appropriate calibrations it can be quickly measured using NIT or NIR
instruments. With selection of corn varieties with high extractable starch
combined with drying methods, higher extractable starch corn can be obtained
with an estimated increase in value of 4-6 cents per bushel per percentage point
of extractable starch.
Funding Sources:
GIPSA-FGIS,
Illinois Council on Food and Agricultural Research, Dupont/Pioneer, Monsanto,
and the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.
Contacts:
Marvin R. Paulsen; 360-B Agricultural Engineering Sciences
Bldg., 1304 W. Pennsylvania Ave., Urbana, IL 61801; 217-333-7926; fax:
217-244-0323, e-mail: mpaulsen@uiuc.edu
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213
Progress Report for 2002
From: USDA, ARS, Grain
Marketing and Production Research Center
Engineering Research Unit
Manhattan, Kansas
By:
Pearson, T.C.
Dowell, F.E.
Armstrong, P.R.
NC-213
Objective:
C
Procedure: 1b
Project Objectives: Develop
sensors, instrumentation, and procedures for objective grading, on-line
measurement, and end-use property assessment of single kernels or bulk
samples.
Results and
Impacts for
2002: Internal insect
infestation of wheat kernels degrades quality and value of wheat and is one of
the most difficult defects to detect. We found that the data generated by the
Perten SKCS 4100 can be processed for detection of live and dead internal
insects in whole wheat kernels. Software has been developed to work in
conjunction with the SKCS 4100 to detect internal insects after a sample has
been run. This technology will provide the wheat milling and handing industries,
as well as FGIS, a rapid and automated method for detecting internal insects in
wheat kernels.
The grain
industry requested a low cost single kernel quality measurement and sorting
system that could be used at field locations and by breeders. Thus, we developed
a system in cooperation with KSU Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Department that singulates kernels, collects NIR spectra, and sorts kernels into
one of 7 categories. This year, through a CRADA with Perten Instruments,
Springfield, IL, a commercial prototype of the new system is being built. This
system will allow measurement and sorting of quality factors such as bunted
kernels, protein, moisture, scab damage, and color class at grain elevators,
thus allowing segregation at the first point of sale and it will also provide
breeders with a means to sort kernels with desirable traits from samples when
developing new cultivars.
Aflatoxin and fumonisin are carcinogens found in corn, and
rapid detection means are needed to insure a safe food and feed supply. In
cooperation with scientists in Peoria, IL, we studied the use of near-infrared
spectroscopy to detect whole corn kernels contaminated with these toxins and
showed we can detect single kernels contaminated with low levels of toxin using
reflectance or transmittance spectroscopy. This year, work began to further
study physical and spectral properties of contaminated kernels with the near
term goal of developing a sorting protocol for removing contaminated kernels.
This research could result in rapid sensors for detecting toxins in samples, or
sensors that can rapidly detect and segregate all individual kernels before they
are used for food or feed purposes.
At the request of FGIS, we are developing calibrations to
detect vitreousness of wheat using machine vision system manufactured by Foss.
We have developed calibrations using samples that represent all vitreous defect
classes. This year we began work to calibrate a high-speed inspection system to
measure wheat vitreousness. This system will reduce inspector error and labor in
detecting vitreousness, allow quality and price to be more accurately accessed,
and allow more precise segregation of wheat in order to improve end-use
quality.
Current methods
for measuring bread staling are not very accurate, are destructive, and give no
insights to the underlying physical-chemical phenomena that occur during
staling. In cooperation with the KSU Grain Science Department, we found that
visible and near infrared spectroscopy accurately correlates with bread staling
and, additionally, it can provide information about when physical and chemical
transformations occur that lead to staling. This year, it was found that NIR
spectroscopy can explain more than twice the amount of variation in bread
staling than current methods can. This technology will provide the baking
industry new, more accurate, methods for measuring bread staling and help
researchers further understand the bread
Plans for 2003: Investigation
of other single kernel quality measurements such as protein and starch quality,
and detection of transgenic attributes will be continued.
We will continue our
investigation of physical and spectral properties of corn contaminated with
aflatoxin and develop rapid methods of sorting contaminated corn.
We will work with
researchers at the University of Florida to develop NIRS methods to rapidly and
non-destructively identify mutant corn kernels.
At the request of GIPSA, we
will continue image acquisition, calibration and testing of the a high speed
image inspection system to determine performance and potential as an aid to
grain inspectors which will discriminate dark hard vitreous (DHV) kernels from
non DHV wheat kernels. We will also develop the calibrations for the
discrimination of hard vitreous and amber colored (HVAC) kernels from non HVAC
wheat kernels.
Cooperation with industry and other researchers to
investigate the potential of the Perten single kernel NIRS and SKCS 4100 to
measure insect characteristics and the quality of other commodities will be
continued.
Publications:
Brabec, D.L., M.
Shogren, and R. Rousser. Mixogram analysis based on mixograph dynamics. Cereal
Foods World. 2002. v. 47. p. 98-104.
Dowell, F.E, T.N. Boratynski, R.E. Ykema, A.K. Dowdy, and
R.T Staten. Use of optical sorting to detect wheat kernels infected with
Tilletia indica. Plant Disease. 2002. v. 86. p. 1011-1013.
Dowell, F.E., T.C. Pearson,
E.B. Maghirang, F. Xie, and D.T. Wicklow. Reflectance and transmittance
spectroscopy applied to detecting fumonisin in single corn kernels infected with
Fusarium verticillioides. Cereal Chemistry. 2002. 79. 230-237.
Pasikatan, M.C., F.E.
Dowell. Sorting systems based on optical methods for detecting and removing
seeds infested internally by insects or fungi: a review. Applied Spectroscopy
Reviews. 2001. v. 36. p. 399-416.
Pasikatan, M.C., J.L. Steele, E. Haque, C.K. Spillman, and
G.A. Milliken. Evaluation of a near-infrared reflectance spectrometer as a
granulation sensor for first-break ground wheat size: studies with hard red
winter wheats. Cereal Chemistry. 2002. v. 79. p. 92-97.
Pearson, T.C., D.T. Wicklow,
E.B. Maghirang, F. Xie, and F.E. Dowell. Detecting aflatoxin in single corn
kernels by using transmittance and reflectance spectroscopy. Transactions of the
ASAE. 2001. v. 44. p. 1247-1254.
Perez-Mendoza, J., F.E. Dowell, A.B. Broce, J.E. Throne,
R.A. Wirtz, F. Xie, J.A. Fabrick, and J.E. Baker. Chronological age-grading of
house flies by using near infrared spectroscopy. Journal of Medical Entomology.
2002. v. 39. p. 499-508.
Ram, M.S., F.E. Dowell, F.E. Seitz, and G. Lookhart.
Development of standard procedures for a simple, rapid test to determine wheat
color class. Cereal Chemistry. 2002. v. 79. p. 230-237.
Wang, D, F.E. Dowell, and
D.S. Chung. Assessment of heat-damaged wheat kernels using near-infrared
spectroscopy. Cereal Chemistry. 2001. v. 78. p. 625-628.
Wang, D., F.E. Dowell, and
R. Dempster. Determining vitreous subclasses of hard red spring wheat by using
near-infrared spectroscopy. Cereal Chemistry. 2002. v. 79. p. 418-422.
Wang, D., F.E. Dowell, Y.
Lan, C.P. Pasikatan, and E. Maghirang. Determining pecky rice kernels using
visible and near-infrared spectroscopy. International Journal of Food
Properties. 2002. v. 5. p. 629-639.
Wang, N., N. Zhang, F.E. Dowell, Y. Sun, and D.E. Peterson.
Design of an optical weed sensor using plant spectral characteristics.
Transactions of the ASAE. 2001. v. 44. p. 409-420.
Abstracts and
Proceedings:
Dowell, F.E.
Recent advances in automated single kernel analysis. Proceedings of the 2nd
International Conference on Grain, Flour, and Bread Quality. 2002. p. 76.
Dowell, F.E., E.B.
Maghirang. Accuracy and feasibility of measuring characteristics of single
kernels using near-infrared spectroscopy. Proceedings of the ICC Conference 2002
Novel Raw Materials, Technologies, and Products – New Challenge for Quality
Control. 2002. p. 84.
Dowell, F.E, M. Pasikatan, T.N. Boratynski, R.E. Ykema,
A.K. Dowdy, and R.T. Staten. High speed detection and sorting to remove bunted
kernels and to purify white wheat stock. Proceedings of the 5th Annual National
Wheat Industry Research Forum. 2002. p. 1.
Maghirang, E., F.E. Dowell, J.E. Baker, and J.E. Throne.
Detecting single wheat kernels containing live or dead insects using NIR. 2002.
ASAE Paper No. 023067.
Pasikatan, M.C., F.E. Dowell. Evaluation of a high-speed
color sorter for segregation of red and white wheat. ASAE Paper No. 021115.
Pearson, T.C., D.L. Brabec.
Automated detection of hidden internal insect infestations in wheat kernels
using electrical conductance. 2002. ASAE Paper No. 023073.
Wang, N., F.E. Dowell, and
N. Zhang. 2002. Determining wheat vitreousness using image processing and a
neural network. 2002. ASAE Paper No. 026089.
Issues: The production and marketing of grain are major
components of the U.S. agricultural economy. Improved utilization and market
efficiencies with objective quality, functionality and grain grade assessments
will increase food wholesomeness, safety, and market competitiveness. For
example, accurate, rapid detection of attributes could assist in: marketing or
segregating genetically modified grain; detecting food safety concerns such as
aflatoxin or fumonisin in corn; or detecting attributes that can lead to
quarantine of commodities such as Karnal bunt in
wheat. This information is particularly useful in evaluating grain prior to
purchase or trade in market channels. Single kernel assessments are needed to
detect defects that may be present in only a small percentage of kernels or to
detect mixtures of contrasting quality characteristics. New technology developed
through this research will provide FGIS with several options for providing
additional objective quality assessments of grain along with official grade
services and thereby improve their services and operating efficiencies. The
objective assessments of grain quality are useful to producers, breeders,
growers, grain handlers, marketers, millers, bakers, and government agencies
such as the Extension Service, FGIS, FSIS, APHIS and OSHA.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213
Progress Report for 2002
From:
Kansas State University
Department of Grain Science and Industry
By:
Herrman, T.J.
Behnke, K.C.
Fairchild, F.J.
Loughin, T.
Yan, Z.
NC-213
Objective:
C
Procedure: 2a
Title: Feed
Processing Optimization
Project Objectives:
Enable feed manufacturers to improve product quality, optimize processing
performance, and maximize profitability by:
1. Evaluating feed grinding, pelleting, and shelf-life
performance of high and low moisture maize,
2. Examining
the effects of mash moisture, retention time, and steam quality in two
conditioners on pellet quality and the consumption of electricity and steam
during the pelleting process,
3. Quantifying the
variability structure in protein content among common sources of feed
ingredients and assess the impact of statistical process control (SPC) as a
management tool to reduce protein and moisture content variation in finished
feed.
Results for
2002:
Study
1: Feed manufacturing involves a batch process in
which ingredients are received, ground, weighed, mixed, steam conditioned and
pelletized, cooled, and then bagged or shipped in bulk. Intermediate working
bins store the feed between each processing activity. The physical properties of
the coarse grain, which may comprise 55 to 65 percent of a feed ration, can
impact each processing center in a feed mill.
The variables used to measure high moisture corn grinding
performance responded differently for the 2.0 mm and 2.7 mm diameter screen
openings. When compared to low moisture corn, we observed a significantly
(P<0.05) higher energy consumption (kWh/t) when grinding high moisture corn
for both the 2.0 and 2.7 mm diameter screen openings; a significantly larger
particle size for high moisture corn ground through the 2.0 mm diameter screen
but not the 2.7 mm screen; and a significantly lower grinding rate (kg/h) with
the high moisture corn ground through the 2.7 mm diameter screen, but not the
2.0 mm screen. Feed conditioned at atmospheric pressure (no expander treatment)
produced more durable pellets using low moisture corn (compared to high moisture
corn) ground through the 2.0 mm diameter screen. The high moisture (versus low
moisture) corn ground through the 2.7 mm diameter screen produced the most
durable pellets. High shear conditioning improved pellet durability and reduced
fines independent of the moisture effect. An exponential model best explained
days to first mold using water activity (aw) as the explanatory variable. While
the rate of dissent for the three different models (25oC, 30oC, and 35oC) were
not significantly different, predicted days to first mold at a 0.70 aw were
different (P<0.05) and followed the expected trend in which the lowest
temperature took more days to first mold compared to the highest temperature,
which required the fewest days to first mold. The potential for interactions
between corn moisture content and each step in the feed manufacturing process
indicates the need for commercial feed manufacturers to carefully evaluate each
processing combination to achieve the most efficient process.
Study
2: Response
variables (pellet durability index (PDI), energy consumption, and steam flow)
were significantly affected by mash moisture, retention time, and steam quality.
The maximum pellet quality (88 PDI) using the CPM conditioner was achieved
through several combinations of retention time in the conditioner and steam
quality. The 100% quality steam treatment required the lowest flow rate to
condition mash to the target temperature of 82.2oC in both conditioners.
Two different conditioners,
manufactured by CPM and Bliss, Inc., were not compared statistically. Similar
trends were observed in the relationship between steam quality, mash moisture,
and retention time and the response variables (PDI, energy consumption, and
steam flow) for both conditioners. As a trend, PDI measurements were lower and
energy consumption by the pellet mill was higher using the Bliss conditioner,
suggesting the process was not fully optimized for this equipment. The presence
of a baffle plate improved steam distribution in the Bliss conditioner,
resulting in less steam flow to achieve the desired 82.2oC conditioned mash
temperature.
The
interaction of mash moisture, retention time, and steam quality suggests that
feed mill managers can pursue several strategies to optimize the pelleting
process. These strategies involve controlling mash moisture content at the
mixer, mash retention time through variable speed adjustment of the
conditioner’s shaft, and steam flow rate in various combinations to achieve
superior pellet quality at the lowest energy cost. Further exploration of these
variables combined with energy cost data are needed to define the most
economically efficient operation of the pelleting cost center.
Study 3: The Chinese feed
industry could benefit by adopting SPC, although feed mills with already low
variance in finished feed protein and moisture content may not gain much
economically. Feed mills that use large volumes of cottonseed or meat-bone meal
are especially susceptible to variation in feed protein content as these protein
sources tended to show the most variation. Soybean meal had the least variation,
likely due to the extensive processing of soybeans into meal, resulting in a
homogeneous product.
Feed
ingredient protein variation is a major source of finished feed protein
variation. The estimated numbers of bags that must be sampled to accurately (95%
confidence) estimate feed ingredient protein content within 0.5% was derived
using variance estimates. The current sampling schemes used by Chinese feed
manufacturers conforms to our calculated sampling number for rapeseed meal, fish
meal, and corn gluten meal.
Publications:
Gilpin, A., T.J.
Herrman, K.C. Behnke, and F.J. Fairchild. 2002. Feed moisture, retention time,
and steam as quality and energy utilization determinants in the pelleting
process. Applied Engineering in Ag. 18(3)331-338.
Herrman, T.J. and T.M.
Loughin. 2002. Processing and shelf-life performance of feed manufactured from
high moisture corn. Transactions ASAE. In Press.
Yan, J., T.J. Herrman, T.M.
Loughin, A. Featherstone, and F.D. Yaun. 2002. Nutritional and economic
implications of protein variance structure and the application of statistical
process control in the Chinese feed industry. Cereal Chemistry.
Issues: The increasingly
competitive feed industry requires feed manufacturers to optimize operating
efficiency and feed quality to maximize profitability.
Impacts:
About 15 million mt of feed produced in China using SPC exhibited lower absolute
protein variance, saving the feed industry an estimate $40 million each year.
Funding Sources:
Foreign Agricultural Service of the U.S.D.A. and Bliss
Equipment Company.
Contacts:
Tim Herrman, Department
of Grain Science and Industry, phone: (785) 532-4082, tjh@wheat.ksu.edu
Return to Table of
Contents
NC-213
Progress Report for 2002
From: Kansas State
University
Department of Grain Science and Industry
By:
Herrman, T.J.
Gwirtz, J.
Lee, K.M.
NC-213
Objective:
C
Procedure: 2a
Title:
Impact of Storage on Wheat Milling Performance
Project Objectives: Identify
storage temperature and moisture conditions that optimize wheat milling
performance.
Results for
2002:
Study
I: The following response variables; flour
extraction, reduction flour ash content, average particle size and particle size
standard deviation, exhibited a significant moisture content x time interactions
(Figures 1-4).
The wheat
moisture content x temper time interaction for flour extraction was driven by
the one-hour temper time response, where percent extraction increased
significantly for each one percent increase in wheat moisture content. The 8 and
16 hour temper treatment showed a non-significant increase in flour extraction
for each percent increase in wheat moisture. In all three-temper time
treatments, the lowest percent flour extraction occurred for wheat with a10
percent moisture content prior to tempering.
The wheat moisture content x temper time interaction for
flour ash content (Figure 2) resulted from a different trend direction between
the one-hour temper time and the longer temper times (8 and 16 hours) across
wheat moisture content. In the one-hour temper treatment, the percent ash in the
reduction flour decreased from 0.49 percent to 0.457 percent as wheat moisture
increased from 10 percent to 12 percent. The ash content remained similar
(P>0.05) for the one-hour temper for wheat moistures 12 through 15 percent.
The difference in the flour ash content from 10 percent moisture wheat for 8 and
16-hour temper times (0.437 and 0.425, respectively) are significantly less
(P<0.05) than the 15 percent moisture content wheat (0.447 and 0.453) for the
8 and 16 hour temper times, respectively.
Figure 1. Percent flour
extraction for wheat possessing 6 moisture levels and three temper time
treatments.
Figure 2. Percent ash
(reduction flour) in response wheat moisture and three temper time
treatments.
Figure 3. Wheat midds particle
size (microns) in response to wheat moisture and temper time treatments.
Figure 4. Wheat midds particle
size standard deviation (Sgw) in response to wheat moisture and temper time
treatments.
The wheat moisture content x
temper time interaction for average particle size resulted from a significant
increase in particle size from 10 percent to 11 percent moisture content wheat
for 1 and 8 hour temper times and a subsequent decline (P<0.05) in particle
size for wheat midds produced from 12 percent moisture wheat. This change in
direction and the higher average particle size for 1 hour temper treatments for
10 through 14 percent moisture wheat compared to the 8 and 16 hour temper
treatments, resulted in the two way interaction. The significant two way
interaction for wheat midds particle size standard deviation followed a similar
pattern as did the average particle size.
Significant (P<0.05) main effects for moisture content
were observed for flour extraction, average particle size and particle size
distribution response variables (Table 1). Significant main effects for temper
time were observed for flour extraction, break flour ash content, reduction
flour ash content, average particle size, and particle size standard deviation
(Table 1).
Table 1. Main
effects for wheat moisture content and temper time for percent flour extraction,
percent break flour ash, percent reduction flour ash, wheat midds average
particle size (microns) and wheat midds particle size standard deviation
(Sgw).
|
Variable |
Treatment level |
Flour extraction |
Break flour ash (%) |
Reduction flour ash (%) |
Average particle size |
Particle size std. dev. |
|
Moisture
Time |
10 11 12 13 14 15
1 8 16
|
64.72 65.59 65.76 65.87 65.98 66.40
64.69 66.11 66.32 |
NS NS NS NS NS NS
0.413 0.394 0.401 |
NS NS NS NS NS NS
0.468 0.442 0.439 |
904.5 919.6 887.4 878.2 859.7 833.6
913.5 867.4 860.3
|
2.064 2.049 2.050 2.034 2.039 2.016
2.067 2.032 2.027 |
The percent flour extraction derived from the 15 percent
initial wheat moisture content was significantly (P<0.05) greater than the
response to other treatment levels. The 15 percent initial wheat moisture
content also resulted in an a smaller average particle size (P<0.05) and
standard deviation (Sgw) for wheat midds compared to lower (<15 percent)
wheat moisture content.
Temper time increase resulted in a corresponding increase
in flour extraction and a lower break and reduction flour ash content. The
16-hour temper time also resulted in a smaller average particle size and
standard deviation (Sgw) for wheat midds.
Temper moisture exhibited a significant effect on starch
damage in the reduction flour, however, no significant response to temper time
or a moisture*time interaction were observed for the reduction flour (Tables
2-4). The high moisture kernels exhibited the highest level of starch damage,
likely due to the lower amount of water added to the wheat to achieve a 15.5%
temper moisture content (Table 2).
Table 2.
The amount of starch damage (SD) in break and reduction flours
|
Moisture content (%) |
Time |
SD of Break flour (%) |
SD of Reduction flour (%) |
|
10 |
1 |
4.14 |
3.50 |
|
10 |
8 |
4.37 |
3.43 |
|
10 |
16 |
4.42 |
3.49 |
|
11 |
1 |
4.09 |
3.68 |
|
11 |
8 |
4.29 |
3.71 |
|
11 |
16 |
4.23 |
3.63 |
|
12 |
1 |
4.14 |
3.58 |
|
12 |
8 |
4.25 |
3.51 |
|
12 |
16 |
4.14 |
3.61 |
|
13 |
1 |
4.14 |
3.47 |
|
13 |
8 |
4.18 |
3.46 |
|
13 |
16 |
4.11 |
3.59 |
|
14 |
1 |
4.26 |
3.51 |
|
14 |
8 |
4.08 |
3.61 |
|
14 |
16 |
4.19 |
3.54 |
|
15 |
1 |
4.37 |
3.70 |
|
15 |
8 |
4.36 |
3.82 |
|
15 |
16 |
4.24 |
3.71 |
Table 3. Starch damage in
break flour
|
Source |
DF |
Sum of square |
Mean square |
F |
Pr>F |
|
Moist |
5 |
0.25527 |
0.05103 |
1.49 |
0.2169 |
|
Time |
2 |
0.03467 |
0.01733 |
0.51 |
0.6064 |
|
Moist*Time |
10 |
0.25616 |
0.02561 |
0.75 |
0.6739 |
Table 4. Starch damage in reduction flour
|
Source |
DF |
Sum of square |
Mean square |
F |
Pr>F |
|
Moist |
5 |
0.45181 |
0.09036 |
4.90 |
0.0017* |
|
Time |
2 |
0.00484 |
0.00242 |
0.13 |
0.8774 |
|
Moist*Time |
10 |
0.10863 |
0.01086 |
0.59 |
0.8116 |
* Significant at P<0.05
Study II: The response variables
break flour extraction and reduction flour extraction were significantly
(P<0.05) by storage temperature (Table 5). The 35oC storage temperature
resulted in a significantly greater break flour extraction and a significantly
lower (P<0.05) reduction flour extraction percentage.
Break flour extraction,
reduction flour extraction, and flour extraction percentage responded
significantly to the storage time (Table 5). The one week and 16 week storage
times were not significantly different for all extraction measures. The week 4
storage time resulted in a significantly lower extraction response compared to
weeks 1 and 16.
Table 5.
Storage temperature and time effect on flour extraction.
|
Variable |
Treatment Level |
Break flour extraction (%) |
Reduction flour extraction (%) |
Flour extraction (%) |
|
Storage Temperature (oC)
Storage Length (weeks)
|
15 25 35
1 4 8 16 |
24.02 24.08 24.53
24.30 24.17 23.90 24.53 |
43.53 43.39 43.28
43.39 43.06 43.51 43.50 |
NS NS NS
67.67 67.24 67.40 68.04 |
Issues:
Identifying the optimum storage moisture content, storage temperature, and
storage time that maximizes flour extraction should results in better management
of the storage cost center, lead to further innovation of environmental control
within the storage bin, and improve flour extraction and profitability.
Impacts: This study has been
performed with a laboratory mill and further work exploring a large scale
milling operation is necessary before significant impacts on the flour milling
industry will occur.
Funding Sources:
The Ohio State
University/OARDC-Anderson Endowment fund.
Contacts:
Tim Herrman, Department
of Grain Science and Industry, phone: (785) 532-4082, tjh@wheat.ksu.edu
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213
Progress Report for 2002
From: Purdue
University
Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station
Agricultural & Biological Engineering
By:
Stroshine, R.L.
Seitz, L.M. USGMRL, Manhattan, Kansas
Paulsen, M.R., University of Illinois
NC-213 Objective:
C
Procedure: 3a
Project Objectives: The overall objective of this project
is to identify methods of measuring the storability of shelled corn. Storability
refers to fungal growth in corn subjected to conditions conducive to fungal
growth. Slower fungal growth means greater storability. The specific objectives
are: (1) to evaluate a 2- to 3-day test that uses a simple and relatively
inexpensive test kit (Woods End Research, Mt. Vernon, Maine) for monitoring
carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by grain fungi growing in a rewetted sample of
corn; (2) to evaluate several rapid tests that, when used together, could
provide a less precise but more rapid (< 15 min) indication of storability;
and (3) to examine the correlations between these tests and two more rigorous
indicators of mold growth, ergosterol content and percent kernel infection.
In the test kit procedure, a
sample is rewetted and placed in a sealed glass jar. Approximately 24 hours
later, a color indicator gel, affixed to a strip of plastic, is inserted. The
indicator changes color in response to increases in CO2 concentration, and
therefore indicates the amount of fungal growth. “Rapid” tests to be evaluated
include electrolyte leakage, near infrared reflectance (NIR), and kernel and
pericarp damage. It is anticipated that corn samples could be screened using a
combination of the rapid tests that correlate with storability. Samples
identified as having the greatest potential for deterioration could be
subsequently evaluated using the more thorough, although slower, CO2 kit.
Results for
2002: Only CO2 kit tests have been conducted
thus far. Samples of shelled corn were rewetted to ca. 20-21% m.c. and
equilibrated in a sealed plastic bag for 24 hours at 23ºC ± 2ºC. Next, 100 g
sub-samples were placed in separate sealed jars at 23ºC. After approximately 67
hrs, the lids were removed to allow the CO2 content in the jar to equalize with
the CO2 content in the atmosphere. Sixty-eight hours after re-wetting, paddles
were placed in the sealed jars and the paddle color was read hourly for the next
8 hrs. The moisture contents of the rewetted corn and the corn taken from each
jar at the end of the test were determined. Results of the CO2 kit color number
versus time after re-wetting for five samples are shown in Figure 1. A higher
color number corresponds to a greater CO2 concentration in the jar. The
differences in storability among the 5 samples were consistent with the sample
histories. B73XMo17 was collected in 1993, stored in a freezer for several
years, and then stored at 4°C for several more years. Although there was no
visible mold in the sample, it was in very poor condition. ASHT had been dried
in a high temperature dryer, a treatment that increases susceptibility to mold
invasion. Note that ASHT and B73xMO17 had highest color numbers. FLLT was
obtained from a processor that purchases corn dried at low or ambient
temperatures. Therefore, its susceptibility to fungal invasion should be lower
than the susceptibility of the sample dried at a higher air temperature, ASHT.
Sample AFNAB4T was taken from the top of a bin dried with natural air while
AFNAB4B was taken from the bottom of the same bin. Since the bin was filled in
one day, the shelled corn on the top of the bin was wet for a longer period of
time, allowing more opportunity for previous growth of fungi. Therefore, it is
reasonable to expect AFNAB4B to have lower color numbers.
Figure 2 shows results for successive tests on the same
sample of corn. AFCD was tested on three different dates, while B73xMO17 was
tested on two different dates. (Note: The readings for sample AFCD 8/2/00 were
started 71 hrs after rewetting, 3 hrs later than the other tests). Although
there were some differences among repeated tests, the trends were quite
similar.
These
preliminary tests indicate that the CO2 kit is capable of distinguishing
differences in fungal growth among samples of shelled corn and that the results
are, in general, repeatable. However, additional research is needed to identify
factors that cause variations in tests so that repeatability can be improved.
Plans for
2003: Additional samples will be collected
from grain inspection facilities and elevators and evaluated with the test kit.
A portion of each sample will be evaluated using the ergosterol test (conducted
at the USGMRL) and kernel infection tests. Another portion will be evaluated for
physical damage, electrolyte leakage, and the NIR reflectance at various
wavelengths. (NIR tests will be conducted at the University of Illinois). Using
the ergosterol and percent kernel infection results as the standard, the
effectiveness of the various tests as indicators of susceptibility to fungal
invasion will be determined.
Issues: When shelled corn
arrives at an elevator or processing facility, the manager usually has very
little information on time and conditions of previous storage. These factors can
greatly influence the susceptibility of the grain to invasion by storage fungi.
If the manager decides to store the grain, there is no good method for
determining the likelihood of spoilage. Managers must rely on experience and the
moisture content when assessing risk. A test that could quantify the likelihood
of fungal deterioration would assist the manager in deciding whether and how
long to store the corn.
What Was Done: A CO2 test kit was
evaluated for its effectiveness in indicating the susceptibility of shelled corn
to fungal invasion. The kit gives an indication of storability within 3 days
after a sample of grain is rewetted to the appropriate moisture content. Results
were promising in that the observed differences among the samples tested were
consistent with expected differences in storability. These expectations were
based upon the manner in which the samples had been dried and stored.
Impacts: Development of procedures
for measuring the storability of shelled corn would give managers of storage
facilities and grain merchandisers an indicator of whether and how long their
shelled corn can be safely stored. There are many situations in which the CO2
kit, which requires a three-day incubation period and rewetting, could be used.
For example, elevator managers who are deciding which lots of shelled corn to
keep in long-term storage could use the test to determine those that would be
least susceptible to storage mold during the additional storage period. Such
measurements would be particularly useful for corn intended for shipment to
tropical climates where there is a higher risk of fungal induced spoilage.
Return to Table of Contents
NC-213
Progress Report for 2002
From:
USDA, ARS
Grain Quality and Structure Research Unit
U.S. Grain Marketing Research Laboratory
Grain Marketing and Production Research Center
Manhattan, Kansas
By: Seitz,
L.M.
NC-213
Objective:
C
Procedure: 3a
Project Objectives:
Identify fungi-grain interrelationships which may regulate invasion and damage
of grain by storage fungi, and identify volatiles associated with unacceptable
odors in grain.
Results
for 2002: Lesser grain
borer (LGB, Rhyzopertha dominica) is an insect that causes major physical and
off-odor damage to grain in storage. Metabolites of LGB were identified to
obtain information needed for understanding and detecting the off-odor, as well
as providing alternative means for detecting LGB infestation. Volatiles from
grains, mostly whole wheat, at 80 °C were collected on Tenax absorbent,
thermally desorbed, and analyzed by gas chromatography using infrared and mass
detectors for component identification. A solid-phase-micro-extraction technique
was also used in analyzing grain samples and in a synthesis process required to
identify ester metabolites. Predominant compounds in LGB-infested grains were
2-pentanol and its esters of 2-methyl-2-pentenoic (A) and
2,4-dimethyl-2-pentenoic (B) acids which are known aggregation pheromones,
dominicalures 1 and 2. 2-Pentanol esters of saturated A, beta-keto- and
beta-hydroxy derivatives of A and B, and 1, 2-carbon homologues of A and B were
found. Other 3-7 carbon straight- and branched-chain secondary alcohols and
their esters were also observed. Some of these metabolites, especially
2-pentanol, were associated with “insect” odor in grain samples obtained from
grain inspectors. Advanced LGB infestation was indicated by presence of the
minor ester and alcohol metabolites. These metabolites are of interest to
scientists investigating insect metabolism and behavior.
Plans for
2003: Identification of the LGB metabolites will
be completed by utilizing the extensive data obtained from gas chromatography,
mass spectral, and infrared spectral analyses of volatile compounds in LGB
cultures and commercial grain samples. A publication will be completed.
Publications:
Razote, E.B., R.G. Maghirang, L.M. Seitz, and I.J. Jeon.
2002. Characterization of volatile organic compounds in airborne dust. In:
Proceedings of the 2002 ASAE Annual International Meeting/CIGR XVth World
Congress, Paper Number 02-4162.
Rengarajan, R. and L.M. Seitz. 2002. Analysis of flavor
compounds from microwave popcorn using supercritical fluid CO2 followed by
dynamic/static headspace techniques. In: Abstract Book of the 224th ACS National
Meeting [Abstract].
Seitz, L.M. and M.S. Ram. 2002. Metabolites of lesser grain
borer in grains. In: Abstract Book of the 87th AACC Annual Meeting
[Abstract].
Issues:
Detailed information on metabolites from lesser grain borer was needed for a)
classification of insect-type odors from analyses of volatile compounds in
grains, and b) better understanding of insect metabolism and behavior.
What Was
Done: Volatile metabolites from grains infested
with lesser grain borer were analyzed by using a gas chromatograph coupled with
mass and infrared detectors. The chromatographic and spectral information was
used to identify many alcohol and ester metabolites produced by the insect.
Impacts:
The information could be used for a) specific detection of lesser grain borer in
grains and classification of off-odor caused by the insect, and b) further
investigation of insect metabolism and behavior.
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NC-213
Progress Report for 2002
From:
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Department of Food Science & Technology
By:
Bullerman, L. B.
NC-213
Objective:
C
Procedure: 3c
Project
Objectives: To determine the effects of food processing
on fumonisins, moniliformin, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone.
Results for
2002: The effects of several
food processes, including canning, baking, frying, roasting and extrusion
cooking on the stability of moniliformin (MON) in spiked corn-based food
products (5 Fg/g of MON) were investigated. Roasting corn meal at 218EC for 15
min had the most significant effect (p<0.05) in the reduction of the toxin
(44.6% reduction). Canning creamed corn for infants at 121EC for 65 min resulted
in only 10% reduction of MON. Reductions of MON ranging from 5.4 to 28.9% were
observed when corn chips were prepared from spiked masa. MON was reduced by
42.2% when corn muffins were baked and by 26.7% when corn grits were extruded.
Overall, MON had heat stability similar to or greater than other Fusarium
mycotoxins.
In another
study, the effects of alkaline cooking on the stability of MON in corn were
determined. A naturally contaminated corn sample containing 1.4 mg/kg of MON was
used to investigate the fate of MON after alkaline-cooking and tortilla
manufacture at pilot plant scale. MON was reduced by 76%. Tortillas were also
prepared at laboratory scale using corn cultures with 15 mg/kg of MON. A total
reduction of 71% MON was found after tortillas were made. The alkaline cooking
method appeared to be an effective procedure for reduction of MON in corn.
A third study was done to
determine the heat stability of zearalenone (ZEN). Reduction of ZEN was measured
during heating at different temperatures (100, 125, 150, 175, 200, and 225EC) in
an aqueous buffer solution at different pHs (4, 7, and 10). The rate and extent
of ZEN reduction increased with processing temperature. Less than 23% of ZEN was
lost when heated < 125EC whereas 34-68% was lost at 150EC after 60 min,
depending on the pH of the buffer. Greater than 92% of ZEN was lost after 60 min
when heated > 175EC, and complete reduction of ZEN was observed in less than
30 min at 225EC, regardless of pH. Overall, ZEN was most stable at pH 7 followed
by pH 4 and 10, respectively, and greatest losses occurred above 175EC.
Plans for
2003: Previous studies in my
laboratory have indicated that the level of fumonisin B1 (FB1) in corn-based
foods was reduced significantly by extrusion processing as determined by
chemical (HPLC) and biochemical (ELISA) assay methods. However, it is still
unproven whether the toxicity or biological activity of FB1 is likewise
destroyed. In 2003 we plan to determine the reduction of toxicity of FB1 in
extruded corn based products using in vitro and in vivo biossay methods. The
tests that will be used will include cell culture bioassays and feeding extruded
FB1 contaminated corn grits to rats in a controlled feeding study.
Publications:
Pineda-Valdes, G., D. Ryu, D. S. Jackson and L. B.
Bullerman. 2002. Reduction of moniliformin during alkaline cooking of corn.
Cereal Chem. 79:779-782.
Issues: Extrusion
processing of cereal grains employs high temperatures, high screw speeds and
severe shear forces that cook grain rapidly and cause molecular transformations
of molecules such as toxins. We have shown reductions of Fusarium mycotoxins by
extrusion processing using chemical and biochemical methods of analyses.
However, the issue remains as to whether or not the biological toxicity is also
destroyed. Work in 2003 on this objective will address that issue.
What Was
Done: High temperature processing of cereal
grains was shown to reduce the concentrations of the Fusarium mycotoxins
moniliformin and zearalenone. It was also shown that moniliformin is very heat
stable and that reductions of this mycotoxin may not be as great from heat
processing as other Fusarium mycotoxins.
Impacts: High temperature processing of
cereal grains in the manufacture of human foods and pet foods may improve the
safety of these products by lowering the concentrations of Fusarium
mycotoxins.
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NC-213
Progress Report for 2002
From: North
Dakota State University
Department of Veterinary and Microbiological Sciences
By:
Wolf-Hall, C.E.
NC-213
Objective:
C
Procedure: 3c
Project
Objectives: To evaluate methods to
treat Fusarium head blight (FHB) infected barley in order to prevent Fusarium
growth and mycotoxin production during malting.
Results for
2002: Hot water
treatments included four temperatures (45, 50, 55, and 60°C) for 0, 1, 5, 10,
and 15 min, and electron-beam radiation included dosages of 0-11.4 kGy. For hot
water treatments, at 45°C, reductions in Fusarium infection (FI) averaged 97%
after 10 and up to 15 min, with no significant reductions in germinative energy
(GE). Significant reduction (25%) in GE occurred at 50°C after 5 min, but FI was
dramatically reduced after only 1 min. For temperatures 55 and 60°C, significant
reductions (48% and 95% respectively) in GE were seen after 1 minute. For
electron-beam radiation, significant reduction in the FI started between 2.3-4.7
kGy. Higher doses (9.2 kGy, and 11.4 kGy) achieved complete reduction (100%) of
FI. GE decreased with increase in the electron-beam dosage over 4.5 kGy;
however, there was a slight increase in GE at approximately 8kGy where the GE
was not significantly different from that at 0 kGy.
Plans for 2003: Continue
screening treatment methods, including physical and biological methods for
effects on FI and GE. Effective treatments will be further studied for effects
on malting quality and mycotoxigenesis of surviving Fusarium. We will also be
determining the effects of these treatments on overall microbial loads in
malt.
Publications:
Panigrahi, S., B. Kottapalli, A. Kubiak and C.E. Wolf-Hall.
2003. Evaluation of optical radiation techniques for reducing Fusarium in
barley.
Kottapalli, B.,
C.E. Wolf-Hall, P. Schwarz, J. Schwarz and J. Gillespie. 2003. Evaluation of hot
water and electron-beam irradiation for reducing Fusarium infection in malting
barley. J. Food Protection.
Issues: Barley with mild
Fusarium head blight (FHB) may lead to the production of mycotoxins during
malting. Maltsters have strict limits for malt quality that ultimately have
severely affected barley production in the USA. Treatment of FHB infected barley
may prevent mold growth and further mycotoxin production during malting allowing
utilization of otherwise good quality barley. Another issue for food-grade malt
producers is high microbial loads in finished malt. The treatments we find
effective for control of Fusarium during malting may also be effective in
reducing levels of other undesirable microbial flora.
What Was
Done: Several physical methods for treating FHB infected
barley were screened for effectiveness in reducing FI while leaving GE as
unchanged as possible. Microwaves and steam exposure were eliminated as too
damaging to GE. UV-C irradiation was not found to be effective in eliminating
FI, but did not damage GE. Hot water and electron-beam treatments were further
studied and the results indicated above.
Impacts: The results
suggest that hot water treatments and electron-beam radiation may be effective
physical treatments to “pasteurize” mildly FHB infected barley, allowing the
utilization of otherwise good quality barley without safety and quality concerns
due to Fusarium growth during malting. An added benefit may be a reduction in
overall microbial loads in food-grade malt.
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